Language Change and Metaphors in the Choctaw Language

Language Change and Metaphors in the Choctaw Language

There are three recent historical events that have affected change in the Choctaw language: contact with Europeans and particularly American missionaries in the early 1800’s, removal of the Choctaw from their ancestral homeland in the 1830’s, and the loss of physical sovereignty as the result of the Dawes Act and subsequent statehood for the former “Indian Territory”.

First contact with Europeans occurred when DeSoto and his merry band strolled through Southeast U.S. Two words were borrowed from the Spanish, wak (cattle/cow) from vaca and katos (cat) from gatos. During the U.S. colonial period, the Choctaw and other Southeastern Nations were courted by many European nations, and the word shupo (hat) was borrowed from the French. Europeans brought new animals that needed new names. Sheep became chukfi ulhpoa (foraging rabbit), goats became issi kosoma (smelly deer), horses became issuba (like a deer), and mules are issuba haksobish falaia (long eared horses).The advent of conversions to Christianity caused the creation of many new words. Some words are transliterations of the English words, such as  Kilaist (Christ) or Chihowa (Jehovah). Other new words include ubai anumpuli chukka (the house of the word from heaven) for church and holisso aiithana (the place of learning from books) for school.

Removal split the Mississippi Choctaw into two groups with about 2/3 removing to what is now Oklahoma (then, it was outside the formal boundaries of the U.S.). The removed Choctaw formed themselves into a republic, establishing its own schools. This would have been a strong period for the Choctaw because they achieved 80% literacy in the Choctaw language during this time. There were newspapers, parts of the Bible, textbooks, official documents, poetry, and personal letters written in Choctaw during this time. In the meantime, the Mississippi Choctaw sunk into poverty as sharecroppers and without the benefit of any literacy. While still mutually intelligible, there are noticeable differences between Mississippi Choctaw and Oklahoma Choctaw.

Literacy ended in Choctaw when the nation status of the Choctaw was terminated through legislation and U.S. policy changes toward American Indians. Choctaw children then were schooled in English. This change in the language of education may have affected the language in other ways. For one, most modern Choctaw speakers are unable to read and understand the Choctaw of the 19^th century. For example, the early name for Saturday was nitak hollo nakfish, the little brother of the holy day (Sunday). Today that is Satiti, a transliteration of Saturday. Bed has changed from topa to anusi (place for sleeping). The word hullo, which is related to holitopa (holy), and originally meant “reverence for something holy,” has been extended to express feelings for other people. This extension from one realm to another represents a metaphor.

The universality of metaphors as a way to create new meanings for old words is well represented in Choctaw. Essentially, Choctaws make metaphors in the same manner as speakers of other languages. For example, they use simile, issuba (issi holba/like a deer) and personification, nipi balit (balilit) kania (the meat ran away—said when a piece of meat falls on the floor), and oklhili nukshoblit pisa, they want to frighten the darkness.